Direct and Indirect Speech
Direct and Indirect Speech — Fundamentals
Direct speech reproduces a speaker's exact words, enclosed in quotation marks. A reporting clause such as she said or he asked introduces the quoted material. The quoted sentence retains the original speaker's tense, pronouns, and time expressions exactly as spoken.
Structure: Reporting clause + comma + opening quotation mark + exact words + closing quotation mark
Example: She said, "I am studying biology." — the present continuous tense, first-person pronoun, and present time reference are all preserved
Punctuation: A comma separates the reporting clause from the quotation; the first word inside the quotation mark is capitalised
Indirect speech (also called reported speech) conveys the meaning of what someone said without quoting their exact words. Quotation marks are removed and the reported clause becomes a subordinate clause. Several grammatical adjustments — tense backshift, pronoun shift, and changes to time expressions and place expressions — may be required to preserve the original meaning from the reporter's perspective.
Key difference from direct speech: No quotation marks; the reported clause becomes a subordinate clause (often introduced by that for statements or if/whether for yes/no questions)
Core principle: The meaning stays the same even though the grammatical form changes
Four adjustment areas: Tense, pronouns, time/place expressions, and sentence structure
Tense Backshift
When the reporting verb is in the past tense (e.g., said, told, asked), the verb inside the reported clause typically shifts one step back in time. This is called tense backshift. Each tense moves to its corresponding past form.
Why backshift happens: The reporting perspective has moved to the past, so all verbs inside the reported clause adjust to reflect that shift
Backshift direction: Always one step backward along the timeline — present becomes past, past becomes past perfect, future becomes conditional
Tense Backshift Reference
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Present Simple → Past Simple ("I like tea" → he liked tea)
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Present Continuous → Past Continuous ("I am reading" → he was reading)
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Present Perfect → Past Perfect ("I have eaten" → he had eaten)
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Past Simple → Past Perfect ("I went" → he had gone)
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Past Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous ("I was sleeping" → he had been sleeping)
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Past Perfect → Past Perfect (no change) ("I had left" → he had left)
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Future (will) → would ("I will go" → he would go)
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Modal (can) → could ("I can swim" → he could swim)
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Modal (may) → might ("It may rain" → it might rain)
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Modal (shall) → should ("I shall return" → he should return)
The tense backshift is not always required. When the reported statement describes a general truth, a habitual action that is still current, or when the reporting verb is in the present tense, the original tense is preserved.
Universal or general truth: "Water boils at 100 °C" → She said that water boils at 100 °C (present simple preserved)
Present-tense reporting verb: He says, "I am tired" → He says that he is tired (no backshift because says is present tense)
Still-relevant habitual: "I exercise every morning" → She said she exercises every morning (if the habit continues)
Pronoun and Possessive Changes
When converting to indirect speech, pronouns and possessive adjectives shift to reflect the perspective of the reporter rather than the original speaker. The change depends on the person of the pronoun and who is reporting.
Context-dependent: The correct pronoun depends on who said what to whom — always identify the speaker, listener, and reporter before transforming
Possessive adjectives follow the same rules: my → his/her, your → my/his/her/their, our → their
Pronoun Shift Rules
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First person (I, we, my, our, mine, ours) → changes to match the speaker's identity in the reporter's frame (he, she, they, his, her, their, etc.)
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Second person (you, your, yours) → changes to match the listener's identity in the reporter's frame (I, he, she, they, my, his, her, their, etc.)
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Third person (he, she, it, they, his, her, its, their) → usually stays the same
Time and Place Expression Changes
Time expressions and place expressions inside the reported clause must shift to reflect the reporter's temporal and spatial frame of reference. These changes happen alongside tense backshift and pronoun shift.
Spatial shifts: here → there, this room → that room, these → those — the reporter is describing a location they may not currently occupy
When NOT to shift: If the time or place reference is still accurate at the moment of reporting (e.g., reporting something said about today, on the same day), the expression may remain unchanged
Time and Place Expression Shifts
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now → then
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today → that day
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tomorrow → the next day / the following day
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yesterday → the previous day / the day before
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this week → that week
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last week → the previous week / the week before
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next month → the following month / the next month
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ago → before
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here → there
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this → that
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these → those
Reporting Statements
For declarative statements, the most common reporting verbs are said and told. The conjunction that introduces the reported clause and is optional but commonly included. Tense backshift, pronoun shift, and time expression changes all apply.
Said vs told: said takes no object (She said that she was tired); told requires an indirect object (She told him that she was tired)
That-clause: The word that can be omitted — She said she was tired is equally correct
Reporting Questions
When reporting questions, the word order changes from interrogative (verb before subject) to affirmative (subject before verb). The question mark is removed and the sentence ends with a full stop. The reporting verb typically becomes asked, inquired, or wondered.
Yes/no questions: Introduced by if or whether — He asked, "Do you like coffee?" → He asked if I liked coffee
Wh-questions: The wh-word is retained as the linking word — She asked, "Where are you going?" → She asked where I was going
Word order: After the wh-word/if/whether, the sentence follows normal statement order — She asked where I lived (not where did I live)
Reporting Commands, Requests, and Advice
Commands, requests, and advice use specific reporting verbs and replace the imperative with an infinitive construction (to + base verb). The original imperative mood disappears entirely in indirect speech.
Positive command: "Open the door" → He told me to open the door
Negative command: "Don't touch it" → She warned me not to touch it
Suggestions: Suggested takes a that-clause with should — "Let's go home" → She suggested that they should go home
Reporting Verbs for Commands and Requests
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Command → told / ordered / commanded + person + to + infinitive
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Request → asked / begged / requested + person + to + infinitive
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Advice → advised + person + to + infinitive
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Warning → warned + person + to + infinitive (or not to + infinitive for negative)
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Suggestion → suggested + that + person + should + verb
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Encouragement → encouraged + person + to + infinitive
Reporting Exclamations
Exclamatory sentences are reported using verbs like exclaimed, remarked, or cried. The exclamation is converted into a statement and the exclamation mark is replaced with a full stop.
Exclamation with *what*: "What a beautiful day!" → She exclaimed that it was a beautiful day
Exclamation with *how*: "How wonderful!" → He exclaimed that it was wonderful
General exclamations: "Oh no!" → She cried out in dismay; "Alas!" → He exclaimed with sorrow
Choosing the Right Reporting Verb
The choice of reporting verb adds nuance to indirect speech. While said and told are neutral, other verbs convey the speaker's attitude, intention, or emotional state. Selecting the correct verb is essential for accurate reporting.
Verb + to-infinitive: agree, refuse, offer, promise, threaten, claim (She agreed to help)
Verb + object + to-infinitive: advise, tell, order, remind, invite, warn (He advised her to study)
Verb + that-clause: say, state, admit, deny, suggest, insist (They insisted that they were innocent)
Verb + gerund: suggest, admit, deny, recommend (He denied taking the money)
Reporting Verbs by Function
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Neutral statement: said, stated, mentioned, remarked
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Strong assertion: claimed, insisted, maintained, asserted
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Admission: admitted, confessed, acknowledged
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Denial: denied, refuted
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Promise: promised, pledged, vowed
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Offer/refusal: offered, refused, declined
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Suggestion: suggested, proposed, recommended
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Apology: apologized, expressed regret
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Question: asked, inquired, wondered, demanded to know
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Command: ordered, commanded, instructed, demanded
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Request: requested, begged, pleaded, urged
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Advice: advised, recommended, counselled
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Warning: warned, cautioned
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Exclamation: exclaimed, cried, shouted
Application Strategy
Worked Examples
Problem Statement
Convert to indirect speech: She said, "I study physics."
tense backshiftpronoun shiftpresent simple to past simple
Step 1
Identify the reporting verb tense
The reporting verb is *said*, which is past tense. This triggers tense backshift in the reported clause.
Step 2
Apply tense backshift
The present simple verb *study* shifts one step back to past simple *studied*.
Step 3
Apply pronoun shift
The first-person pronoun *I* changes to *she* to match the speaker (the original speaker is female).
Step 4
Form the indirect speech sentence
She said that she studied physics. Quotation marks are removed, *that* introduces the reported clause, and both tense and pronoun have been adjusted.
Problem Statement
Convert to indirect speech: He asked, "Where do you live?"
wh-questionword order changetense backshiftpronoun shift
Step 1
Identify the sentence type
This is a wh-question (starts with *Where*). The reporting verb *asked* is past tense, so backshift applies.
Step 2
Retain the wh-word as the linker
The word *Where* stays and becomes the connecting word between the reporting clause and the reported clause.
Step 3
Convert to statement word order
The interrogative order *do you live* changes to statement order *I lived*. The auxiliary *do* is dropped, the tense backshifts from present simple to past simple, and the pronoun *you* changes to *I* (matching the listener in the reporter's frame).
Step 4
Form the indirect speech sentence
He asked where I lived. No question mark, no quotation marks, statement word order after the wh-word.
Problem Statement
Convert to indirect speech: The teacher asked, "Have you completed the assignment?"
yes/no questionif/whethertense backshiftpresent perfect to past perfect
Step 1
Identify the sentence type
This is a yes/no question (it can be answered with yes or no). The reporting verb *asked* is past tense, so backshift applies.
Step 2
Introduce with if or whether
Yes/no questions use *if* or *whether* as the connecting word instead of *that*.
Step 3
Apply tense backshift and word order
Present perfect *have you completed* shifts to past perfect *I had completed*. The word order becomes subject-first: *I had completed*. The pronoun *you* changes to *I*.
Step 4
Form the indirect speech sentence
The teacher asked if I had completed the assignment. The question mark is gone, *if* replaces the interrogative structure, and the verb has backshifted.
Problem Statement
Convert to indirect speech: The coach said, "Run faster!"
commandimperative to infinitivetold + object + to-infinitive
Step 1
Identify the sentence type
This is a command (imperative mood). Commands use reporting verbs like *told*, *ordered*, or *commanded* followed by an object and a to-infinitive.
Step 2
Replace the reporting verb
*Said* is too neutral for a command. Replace it with *told* or *ordered*, which require an indirect object.
Step 3
Convert the imperative to a to-infinitive
The imperative *Run faster* becomes *to run faster*. The exclamation mark becomes a full stop.
Step 4
Form the indirect speech sentence
The coach told the players to run faster. An appropriate object (*the players*) has been added since *told* requires one.
Problem Statement
Convert to indirect speech: He said, "I will finish this project tomorrow."
tense backshiftpronoun shifttime expressionplace expression
Step 1
Identify all elements that need changing
The sentence contains a future tense (*will finish*), first-person pronoun (*I*), a demonstrative (*this*), and a time expression (*tomorrow*). All four areas require adjustment.
Step 2
Apply tense backshift
*Will* shifts to *would*: *will finish* becomes *would finish*.
Step 3
Apply pronoun shift
First-person *I* changes to *he* (matching the male speaker).
Step 4
Apply time and place expression changes
*This* changes to *that*, and *tomorrow* changes to *the next day* (or *the following day*).
Step 5
Form the indirect speech sentence
He said that he would finish that project the next day. Every element — tense, pronoun, demonstrative, and time expression — has been adjusted to the reporter's frame of reference.
Problem Statement
Convert to indirect speech: The professor said, "Light travels at approximately 300,000 kilometres per second."
universal truthno tense backshift
Step 1
Identify the nature of the reported content
The statement describes a scientific fact — the speed of light is a universal truth that does not change over time.
Step 2
Determine whether backshift applies
Although the reporting verb *said* is past tense, the backshift rule is suspended for universal truths. The present simple tense is preserved.
Step 3
Form the indirect speech sentence
The professor said that light travels at approximately 300,000 kilometres per second. The verb *travels* remains in present simple because the fact is always true.
Problem Statement
Convert to indirect speech: She said, "Don't open the window."
negative commandnot to + infinitive
Step 1
Identify the sentence type
This is a negative command (negative imperative). Negative commands use *not to* + infinitive in indirect speech.
Step 2
Choose an appropriate reporting verb
*Said* can work, but *told* or *warned* is more precise for a command. Use *told* with an object.
Step 3
Convert to not-to-infinitive construction
The negative imperative *Don't open* becomes *not to open*. The object *the window* stays unchanged.
Step 4
Form the indirect speech sentence
She told me not to open the window. An appropriate object (*me*) has been added, and the imperative has been converted to the negative infinitive.
Problem Statement
Convert to indirect speech: She said, "What a wonderful performance!"
exclamationexclaimed that
Step 1
Identify the sentence type
This is an exclamation introduced by *What a*. Exclamations use reporting verbs like *exclaimed*, *remarked*, or *cried*.
Step 2
Replace the reporting verb
Change *said* to *exclaimed* to capture the emotional tone of the original statement.
Step 3
Convert to a that-clause
Remove *What a* and the exclamation mark. Restate the content as a statement: *it was a wonderful performance*. The tense backshifts from present (*is*) to past (*was*) if needed.
Step 4
Form the indirect speech sentence
She exclaimed that it was a wonderful performance. The exclamation mark is gone, the emotional verb *exclaimed* replaces *said*, and the content is restated as a declarative clause.
Memorize formulas
No formulas for this topic.
Review
1
Which of the following is an example of direct speech?
Ans
She said, "I am going home."
Review
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Identify Direct Speech
Direct speech reproduces the speaker's exact words inside quotation marks, typically preceded by a comma and a reporting clause (said, asked, etc.).
"She said, 'I am going home.'" is direct speech.
Eliminate Indirect Forms
Options using 'that' clauses, infinitives ('to leave'), or explanatory verbs without quotes are indirect speech.
Only the option with quotation marks qualifies.
2
What punctuation marks are used to enclose the exact words spoken in direct speech?
Ans
Quotation marks " "
Review
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Recall Direct Speech Punctuation
In English, the exact words of a speaker are enclosed in double quotation marks.
Quotation marks " " are used for direct speech.
Distinguish from Other Punctuation
Parentheses, brackets, and dashes serve different functions in writing and do not indicate spoken words.
Only quotation marks mark direct speech.
3
She said, "I have finished my homework." What is the correct indirect speech transformation?
Ans
She said that she had finished her homework.
Review
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Apply Tense Backshift
Present perfect (have/has + past participle) shifts back to past perfect (had + past participle) in reported speech.
"have finished" → "had finished"
Apply Pronoun Change
First person "I" changes to third person "she" to match the subject of the reporting clause.
"I" → "she", "my" → "her"
Combine
Merge the changes into the full reported sentence.
She said that she had finished her homework.
4
He said, "I will call you tomorrow." Which is the fully correct indirect speech form?
Ans
He said that he would call me the next day.
Review
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Backshift the Tense
The future simple "will" backshifts to "would" in reported speech.
"will call" → "would call"
Shift the Time Expression
"Tomorrow" (relative to the moment of speaking) becomes "the next day" or "the following day" in reported speech.
"tomorrow" → "the next day"
Combine All Changes
Apply pronoun shift (I → he, you → me) along with tense and time changes.
He said that he would call me the next day.
5
When converting direct speech to indirect speech, the present perfect tense "have seen" changes to:
Ans
had seen
Review
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Apply the Backshift Rule
Tense backshift moves every tense one step into the past. Present perfect → past perfect.
"have seen" → "had seen"
Verify Against Other Options
"Was seeing" (past continuous) and "saw" (simple past) represent wrong tenses. "Has seen" shows no backshift at all.
"had seen" is the only correct backshift.
6
Ahmed said, "I will lend you my book." In indirect speech, the pronouns "I," "you," and "my" change respectively to:
Ans
he, me, his
Review
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Shift First Person
First-person pronouns change to match the speaker. "I" becomes "he" (referring to Ahmed).
"I" → "he"
Shift Second Person
Second-person pronouns change to match the listener. "You" becomes "me" (the person Ahmed spoke to).
"you" → "me"
Shift Possessive
First-person possessive determiners follow the speaker's perspective. "My" becomes "his."
"my" → "his"
7
She said, "I am leaving tomorrow." In reported speech, the time expression "tomorrow" becomes:
Ans
the next day
Review
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Recall Time Expression Shifts
Time expressions shift because the moment of reporting is different from the moment of speaking. "Tomorrow" refers to the day after the original speaking time.
"tomorrow" → "the next day" / "the following day"
Eliminate Incorrect Options
"That day" is the shift for "today." "The previous day" is the shift for "yesterday." Neither applies here.
"the next day" is the correct shift.
8
He said, "I left my notebook here." In reported speech, the word "here" changes to:
Ans
there
Review
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Apply Place Expression Shift
Place expressions shift because the speaker and reporter are typically in different locations. "Here" (near the speaker) becomes "there" (distant from the reporter).
"here" → "there"
Verify the Full Sentence
The complete indirect form would be: He said that he had left his notebook there.
"here" → "there" is correct.
9
The teacher asked, "Where do you live?" What is the correct indirect speech form?
Ans
The teacher asked where I lived.
Review
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Remove Auxiliary and Restore Word Order
In reported wh-questions, the auxiliary verb "do/does/did" is removed and the subject-verb order of a statement is used.
"where do you live" → "where I lived"
Apply Tense Backshift
The present simple "live" backshifts to the past simple "lived."
"live" → "lived"
Combine
The reporting verb "asked" is followed directly by the wh-word + clause without "that."
The teacher asked where I lived.
10
"Are you coming to the party?" Sara asked me. What is the correct indirect speech form?
Ans
Sara asked me if I was coming to the party.
Review
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Introduce with If/Whether
Yes/no questions require "if" or "whether" as the connecting word in reported speech, not "that."
Use "if" or "whether" to connect.
Apply Statement Word Order
Change from question order (verb-subject) to statement order (subject-verb): "are you coming" → "I was coming."
"are you coming" → "I was coming"
Combine
Merge the introductory clause with the reported question clause.
Sara asked me if I was coming to the party.
11
The mother said to the child, "Don't touch the stove." What is the correct indirect speech form?
Ans
The mother forbade the child to touch the stove.
Review
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Identify the Sentence Type
This is a negative command (imperative), which uses a specific reporting structure in indirect speech.
Negative command → use 'forbade' or 'told...not to'
Apply the Correct Structure
"Forbade + object + to-infinitive" correctly transforms the negative imperative into indirect speech.
The mother forbade the child to touch the stove.
12
She said, "Alas! I have failed the test." What is the correct indirect speech form?
Ans
She exclaimed with sorrow that she had failed the test.
Review
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Choose the Right Reporting Structure
"Alas!" expresses sorrow, so the reporting verb becomes "exclaimed with sorrow" in indirect speech.
"Alas!" → "exclaimed with sorrow that"
Apply Tense Backshift
The present perfect "have failed" backshifts to past perfect "had failed."
"have failed" → "had failed"
Remove Exclamation Mark and Punctuation
The exclamation mark and interjection are absorbed into the reporting verb phrase.
She exclaimed with sorrow that she had failed the test.
13
Which reporting verb best captures the meaning of: He said, "You really should see a doctor about that cough."
Ans
advised
Review
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Analyze the Original Sentence
The use of "should" indicates a recommendation or piece of advice, not a command or a simple statement.
The communicative function is advice.
Match to Reporting Verb
Select a reporting verb that matches the communicative function: advice → "advised."
"advised" is the best fit.
14
The teacher said, "Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius." In indirect speech, what happens to the verb "boils"?
Ans
It remains "boils" because the statement is a universal truth.
Review
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Identify the Statement Type
Determine whether the direct speech expresses a universal truth, scientific fact, or general principle.
"Water boils at 100°C" is a universal/scientific truth.
Apply the No-Backshift Exception
Universal truths and general facts are exempt from tense backshift because they remain true at all times.
"boils" remains "boils" — no backshift applied.
15
She said, "I can't attend the meeting because I will be travelling that day." Choose the fully correct indirect speech version.
Ans
She said that she couldn't attend the meeting because she would be travelling that day.
Review
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Backshift Both Tenses
"Can't" (present) → "couldn't" (past). "Will be travelling" (future continuous) → "would be travelling" (conditional continuous).
"can't" → "couldn't", "will be travelling" → "would be travelling"
Shift Pronouns
Both instances of first-person "I" change to third-person "she."
"I" → "she" (both instances)
Check Time/Place Expressions
"That day" is already a shifted form and remains unchanged.
She said that she couldn't attend the meeting because she would be travelling that day.
Question 1 of 15
0:00
1
Which of the following is an example of direct speech?